Emotions and the Brain

In the past, researchers studying the brain often overlooked the role of emotions, focusing primarily on other aspects. Only a minority delved into the origins of emotions and the intuitive sense. However, this trend has undergone a notable change in recent times. There has been a surge in interest in emotions, driven by various factors, including studies on split-brain patients. Scientists studying individuals who had experienced injuries or conditions leading to the disconnection between the two hemispheres of their brains were astonished to find that these segments still communicated with each other in some way. Despite the inability of the left hemisphere to comprehend the processes employed by the right hemisphere to assess stimuli, it could still generate emotional responses to them.

Seven principles emerged on how emotions function

1. The brain doesn’t have one unified system for handling emotions; instead, each emotion has its unique origin and purpose. For instance, the emotion of fear is controlled in a different brain region than the emotion of sexual desire. To understand the connection between "thinking" and "feeling," we need to study each emotion within its "psychological" and "physiological" context. Emotions are unique, so we can’t make broad assumptions from one emotion to another.
2. Emotions have helped living organisms survive over time. Human emotions have evolved over millions of years.
3. Humans are aware of their emotions, but other animals, even if they don’t have a conscious awareness of emotions, can still sense and react to threats.
4. Emotions are part of bigger neurological systems. For example, fear is just one part of how our brain and body respond to danger.
5. Because emotions are linked to specific body responses, scientists can measure changes in the systems that create these emotions.
6. Certain situations can trigger emotions, like watching a movie, but you can’t "choose" your emotions—they simply happen.
7. Once emotions arise, they influence how you behave.

Contemplate Thoughts and Emotions

The brain, with its billions of interconnected neurons, is a marvelously intricate organ. Amidst the countless interactions occurring within and between these neural networks, emotions emerge as both conspicuous and enigmatic phenomena. Often, emotions can propel actions with such intensity that they precede conscious awareness. Despite the vividness of emotional experiences, understanding their underlying causes may remain elusive for many individuals.

Throughout history, philosophers and scientists have formulated various theories concerning thought and emotion. Ancient Greeks proposed a conflict between emotion and reason for control over the psyche. In the early twentieth century, scientific focus leaned heavily towards rationality, often isolating cognition from emotion. Behaviorists restricted their study to observable behaviors. Subsequently, the brain was likened to computers, leading to the "functionalism" theory. Functionalists suggested that if different mechanisms achieved identical functions, they likely mirrored similar processes. They viewed the brain as an information-processing entity, akin to a computer.

Despite prevailing beliefs, certain thinkers persisted in questioning the nature of emotions, particularly fear. A fundamental query arose: Why do individuals flee when they perceive danger? The intuitive response suggested fear as the driving force. However, William James presented a contrary perspective in his 1884 article titled "What is an Emotion?" According to James, fear arises as a consequence of the action taken – in this case, fleeing. He posited that a stimulus elicits a response, such as running, which subsequently triggers the emotion. Walter Cannon further contributed to the discourse with his renowned "fight-or-flight-response" theory in 1920. Cannon proposed that during emergencies, the body manifests a limited array of emotional reactions to external stimuli.

Complexity of Emotional Pathways

In the 1960s, several scholars advocated for viewing emotions as "cognitive interpretations of situations" – essentially, thoughts manifested differently. However, these theories overlooked the crucial role of appraisal, the rapid process through which the brain evaluates the significance of a stimulus. Some theorists stumbled by overly relying on their subjects' self-reports regarding their emotions. Others proposed the existence of an "emotional unconscious," suggesting that stimuli could trigger emotions without conscious processing. This notion paved the way for subliminal exposure, occasionally employed in advertising, where audiences are exposed to images for extremely brief periods, as short as "1/200th of a second," to establish associations below the threshold of consciousness. 

While early research may have exaggerated the implications of the emotional unconscious, scientists now affirm that the brain indeed appraises stimuli unconsciously. Despite this understanding, some traditional psychologists still maintain the belief that individuals have full awareness of their mental processes, which is not always accurate. While one may sometimes comprehend why they feel upset, the pathways to emotions often remain convoluted and perplexing.

Emotion and Cognition in Brain Function

"Emotion and cognition" are essentially "distinct yet interconnected mental processes regulated by separate yet interrelated brain mechanisms." Damage to specific brain regions may result in the ability to perceive stimuli as objects but the loss of emotional appraisal. Even while perceiving something, emotional responses can begin to arise before full perception occurs. Numerous bodily response systems function automatically, often without engaging conscious thought. Additionally, the brain stores emotional memories of a stimulus differently from cognitive memories of the same stimulus.

Origin of Emotions

For an extended period, researchers endeavored to identify precise brain regions responsible for generating distinct emotions. Some researchers inferred the existence of a distinct "limbic system" solely dedicated to emotions based on studies involving animals with surgically removed brain portions. Another prevalent theory, proposed by Paul MacLean, sought to locate emotions by considering the evolutionary trajectory of humans. MacLean's theory introduced the concept of the "triune brain," comprising "reptilian, paleomammalian, and neomammalian" sections, each with distinct functions. According to MacLean, the reptilian brain primarily handles the most primal and aggressive emotions.

Specific mental processes do not correspond to specific brain regions; rather, they emerge from the interactions among various brain regions. Even when a specific area of the brain appears to serve a specialized function, it is integrated into a broader system or "module."

Emotions Across Species and Cultures

If you "reverse engineer" the brain's structure and functions, researchers have discerned that emotions aren't exclusively human attributes but are deeply rooted in animal responses. Contrary to claims of uniqueness, emotions exhibit commonalities across species, a notion first highlighted by Darwin and subsequently supported by other scientists. Across cultures, a fundamental set of core emotions is universally experienced, dispelling the notion that each culture generates its unique emotional repertoire. Through reverse engineering, it becomes evident that certain emotions are biologically primitive, while others are more advanced or incidental byproducts. Evolutionarily speaking, most human emotions represent relatively recent developments.

Fear as a gateway to understanding Emotions

Each emotion operates within its module, necessitating separate studies for each. Fear, being one of the most primal emotions, presents itself as a straightforward subject for study. Many species, including humans, experience and express fear in similar ways. Scientists can induce fear in animals through conditioning, such as pairing an electrical shock with a sound. Consequently, the animal associates the sound with fear, exhibiting typical fear responses upon hearing it. This fear conditioning provides researchers with a means to connect emotions to “specific stimuli,” a feat often challenging with more complex emotions. Moreover, it facilitates the examination of information processing within the brain.

Through fear-conditioning experiments, researchers have uncovered the critical role of the amygdala, “a small region located in the forebrain,” in emotion processing. Moreover, certain instances of "emotional learning" bypass the neocortex, the brain region associated with cognitive functions. Consequently, animals, and occasionally humans, react immediately and reflexively to stimuli, experiencing fear due to their unconscious identification of its cause.

Beyond Conscious Recall

Individuals with brain damage unable to create new conscious memories can still develop "emotional memories," consistently linking specific emotional reactions to certain stimuli. This highlights the multifaceted nature of memory formation pathways. Additionally, it's possible to attribute emotions to specific situations without conscious recollection of the triggering event. At times, full consciousness of an event and associated feelings are present, while other instances result in feelings of distress without clear understanding. Furthermore, individuals can sometimes detach overly intense emotional associations from events; for instance, psychologists aid veterans in recalling battles without re-experiencing traumatic emotions linked to their experiences.

The Basics of Anxiety

Anxiety, akin to fear, emerges as an emotional reaction to perceived threats in situations. However, unlike fear, anxiety often arises without a discernible “external stimulus."It serves as a pivotal component in various psychological disorders, such as phobias and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Previously, researchers posited that anxiety stemmed from “traumatic learning experiences, leading to the formation of unpleasant memories.” 

As a result, they utilized fear conditioning experiments as a means to comprehend anxiety. Nonetheless, the fear induced in laboratory settings differs from the anxiety experienced by many individuals. While conditioned responses tend to diminish once the stimulus is removed, phobias often persist stubbornly. 

Complexities of Memory and Emotional Responses

The "preparedness theory" elucidates this phenomenon by suggesting that animals possess a genetic predisposition to respond fearfully to certain threats; for instance, monkeys instinctively fear snakes even without prior exposure. This theory may also account for human phobias and the perplexing observation that some individuals suffering from “clinical anxiety” have no recollection of past traumas that could have triggered their fears.

However, some instances of forgetting have biological underpinnings. Prolonged stress can impair the functioning of the brain's systems, leading to decreased memory recall and formation abilities. Additionally, depression has the potential to interfere with memory processes. Conversely, in specific situations, stress can amplify the intensity of emotional memories. Such profound experiences can shape enduring "emotional habits," which prove beneficial when facilitating immediate reactions to recurring threats without conscious deliberation. However, when these emotional habits no longer align with actual threats in the environment, they can become debilitating. Psychotherapy, reconditioning techniques, and pharmacological interventions all aim to "reconfigure" the “brain's neural pathways.”

Emotions and Self-consciousness

To experience an emotion, two essential factors must coincide: the activation of an emotional system within the brain and conscious awareness of it. However, defining consciousness remains a subject of ongoing debate in recent theories. Many contemporary perspectives view consciousness through the lens of "working" or "short-term memory," where the brain processes and stores immediate experiences. Short-term memory encompasses the information currently in focus, spanning the spectrum between deliberate thought and automatic reaction. Consciousness operates akin to a computer, handling tasks sequentially, while the myriad systems of the unconscious mind operate concurrently, processing information simultaneously.

However, consciousness differs from mere computation. To perceive an emotion, you initially encounter a stimulus. Subsequently, the brain, particularly the amygdala, interprets it and releases chemicals that elicit a physiological reaction throughout the body. Concurrently, your short-term memory holds a representation of this emotional experience. As a feedback loop forms among these components, the emotion may persist even after the initial stimulus vanishes. Unlike aimless thoughts that may occur alongside other activities, experiencing a conscious emotion demands full attention and focus.