The Impact of Disease and Domestication on Societal Inequality

The way diseases start, grow, and spread plays a big role in creating inequalities between different societies. Understanding human societies begins around 11,000 years ago when people started to domesticate plants and animals. They chose plants that tasted good or were more nutritious, which influenced which plants were eventually domesticated. Societies that domesticated animals developed immunity to certain diseases that those without domesticated animals did not have.

As people moved from hunting and gathering to farming and animal domestication, they also developed specialized jobs like blacksmiths, doctors, and scribes. When Europeans arrived in the Americas, they had advanced weapons, immunity to diseases, and developed writing systems. These advantages were partly due to the plants and animals they had domesticated over thousands of years. Historians often believed that Europeans were superior to Native Americans because of their weapons, disease immunity, and writing skills.

Eurasian Conquests and Food Production

A mix of different methods helps us ask important questions about why Eurasians were so successful in taking over tribal peoples. While some questions raised might not need immediate answers, the book's exploration of food production history is helpful. It sticks to previous ideas but provides new insights and expands on them.

Historians know that governments and widespread irrigation systems developed around the same time to support large-scale food production. This raises the question: did governments form first, leading to the creation of irrigation systems, or were governments created to manage the irrigation needed for farming? While this question is interesting, the main point is that a centralized government and large-scale food production depend on each other. It is impossible to have one without the other.

It's important to recognize that not all societies evolve in the same way or make the same choices about using their advantages. The book aims to explain why certain events happened, specifically why Eurasian invaders, despite being outnumbered, succeeded in foreign lands. Diamond focuses on developing theories about these events rather than speculating on what might have happened, though he does offer some suggestions.

Impact of Geography on Societal Development

Geography, particularly the orientation of land masses, played a crucial role in the rise of different societies. The ability to grow and produce food effectively influenced the development of societies, including their capacity to domesticate animals and build advanced technologies like steel. In Eurasia, the land stretches mainly from east to west, while in the Americas and most of Africa, it stretches north to south. This difference in geography affected the spread of plants. For instance, evidence from plant genetics shows that plants spread more quickly from Southeast Asia to Europe.

The Fertile Crescent, a crescent-shaped region in Western Asia, the Nile Valley, the Nile Delta, and parts of Asia Minor, had many resources that could spread quickly east and west. However, plant and animal life had a harder time moving north or south. Plants tend to grow best along the same latitude, so they can spread easily from east to west but struggle moving north to south. For instance, it would be difficult for a Canadian farmer to grow Mexican corn. This is why plant domestication didn’t spread north and south in the Americas or Africa, but Europe could benefit from the plants domesticated in the Fertile Crescent. Animals face similar challenges with latitude.

Continents with a north-south axis faced challenges in spreading domesticated plants and animals. When humans found useful plants and animals, they usually didn't try to create new ones but used what was already available.

The Role of Writing in Exploration and Expansion

Diamond’s book highlights how writing and language contributed to the successful exploration and expansion of different groups. One key point is the role of geography in the creation and spread of writing systems. Most writing systems today come from earlier ones, like Sumerian or Mesoamerican writing. This is because inventing a new writing system from scratch is challenging. Instead, people often modify an existing system, which is known as “blueprint copying.” Another method is “idea diffusion,” where only the basic concept of writing is used to create something new.

Hunter-gatherer societies did not create writing systems because they didn’t see the need for it. They didn’t need to keep records for trade, document military conquests, or create complex legal contracts. For example, when Francisco Pizarro captured the Incan ruler Atahuallpa in November 1532, the Incas, who had a much larger force, were unaware of the Spanish threat. They were tricked into paying a huge ransom for Atahuallpa’s release. The Incas did not know Spanish strategies, but written reports in Spain about the New World were encouraging more settlers to come, giving Pizarro an advantage by using familiar Spanish tactics.

Technological Advancement and Its Impact on Societies

Technological progress is less predictable than many people think, but it's crucial for the success of societies. Generally, well-organized societies develop more advanced technologies. For instance, advanced tools and the use of animals have been created to help with food production and storage, while improved weapons are necessary for establishing and protecting governments. On the other hand, tribal communities often face challenges from more technologically advanced invaders because they don't develop such technologies, as they don't need them for their way of life.

Military technology in Eurasia was much more advanced compared to that of Native Americans. Eurasians used steel to make weapons and armor, which helped them protect and achieve their goals more effectively. They also had horses, while Native Americans did not. Native Americans primarily used stone or wooden clubs and axes, slings, bows, and arrows, and wore quilted armor. They lacked centralized governments, immunity to diseases, and domesticated animals and plants found in Eurasia. This technological gap made Native Americans vulnerable to European invaders. Their situation was not due to their worth as human beings but rather to the lack of access to the same resources and technologies as the Europeans. If Native Americans had had the same domesticated plants, animals, and technologies, they might have used them just like the Eurasians did.

Technological Advantages of Eurasian Exploration

Eurasians had significant advantages due to their technologies. Successful food production and powerful centralized governments made sea exploration possible. By the time the Spanish arrived in the New World, Eurasians had a long history of sea exploration, while many tribal peoples preferred isolation and had little interest in conquest. Tribes without mass food production didn't need advanced transportation methods for trade. As Europeans learned more about the New World, other countries also became eager to explore and exploit the isolation of these tribal societies.

The lack of sea exploration and written languages among South American tribes put them at a big disadvantage. They had no way of learning about the Eurasian invaders, while the Europeans, like the Spaniards, could document their travels and interactions with South Americans. This documentation allowed Europeans to gather information about South America’s riches and its people’s weaknesses. Later explorers could use these successful tactics to exploit native Americans, while native American leaders continued to make the same errors.

Influence of Government and Religion on Society

The way a government is set up and whether it supports a particular religion affects how a society behaves and thrives over time. Centralized governments, which managed large-scale food supplies, played a key role in encouraging exploration and expansion. They used tools like weapons and writing to control and exploit other states. Today, governments still use both old and new technologies to support their authority and motivate people, sometimes even to violence. By the start of the Renaissance in 1300, most of Eurasia had organized states, many formed through the conquest of others, and many of these states had official religions that helped keep the state together. When the Spaniards arrived in the New World, their soldiers were prepared to fight and die for "God, king, and country" with the motto, “Por Dios y Espana.”

After societies learned to grow plants and raise animals, they needed new ways to live together peacefully. With food and animals more available, governments could form and create ideologies and religions to support their rule and justify conflicts to protect it. This marked a big shift from tribal hunter-gatherers, who didn’t have centralized governments supported by religions. Before around 6,000 BCE, it's possible there were no religions that encouraged people to fight or kill.

The Role of Government and Religion

Government and religion both play important roles in resolving conflicts and managing resources for large groups of people. However, bureaucracies often focus on protecting their interests, which can lead to religion being used to support the government.

The main advantage of the Spanish was their quick execution. For example, they could send messages accurately over long distances in South America and across the ocean using written communication. Written messages were more reliable than word of mouth and could be passed down through generations. Additionally, Spanish soldiers on horseback could catch up with messengers before they could spread warnings. The Spanish came with the support of their central government and religion, equipped with advanced tools for their mission. If South American groups had united and developed a central government before the Spanish arrived, they might have been able to resist more effectively.

Impact of Animal Domestication on Societal Dominance

The difference between Eurasians and Native Americans in access to domestic mammals and plants greatly influenced the outcome of conflicts. Animal domestication, alongside plant cultivation, played a crucial role because it affected many other factors that determined which society was more dominant. Geography determines which animals can be domesticated, and people select those that provide the most food. This leads to a stronger central government that can better feed, conquer, and protect itself. Additionally, societies with domesticated animals develop better immunity to diseases because dense populations in cities help build mass immunity, unlike isolated tribes.

Eurasian societies thrived because they domesticated several large mammals. Key domesticated animals included sheep, goats, various types of cattle, pigs, and horses. These animals were initially used to improve food distribution. Early farmers and ranchers found these animals to be valuable tools for their work. For example, it takes about 10,000 pounds of corn to raise a 1,000-pound cow. To grow 1,000 pounds of meat from a carnivore, it would require feeding it 10,000 pounds of herbivores, which were themselves raised on 100,000 pounds of corn. This is why carnivores were never domesticated—they are too costly and impractical compared to the benefits they provide.

Domestication of Large Mammals

Only 14 large mammals have been successfully domesticated by humans, and despite advances in technology, no new species have been domesticated in the last thousand years. The Anna Karenina principle explains why most mammals can’t be domesticated, highlighting that it's not about the superiority of people who domesticate animals but about meeting specific criteria. For an animal to be domesticated, it must have the right diet, growth rate, mating habits, temperament, and social structure. If an animal lacks any of these traits, it cannot be domesticated. Luckily for Eurasian people, most animals that could be domesticated naturally live in their region.

South Americans were vulnerable to invasions from Eurasia for several reasons, stretching back thousands of years. Unlike Europeans, who had many large domesticated animals from Southeast Asia, the Americas only had the llama and alpaca, and these were limited to a small region. The north-south layout of the Americas made it hard for the alpaca to spread widely, which affected the distribution of crops needed to feed them. This lack of large domestic animals and reliable crops meant South Americans had no previous exposure to Eurasian animals and their diseases. As a result, they were defenseless against the diseases Europeans brought with them. Since South Americans lived in smaller groups and not in large cities, they didn’t develop the same immunity to diseases as Europeans did. Although South Americans could ambush Europeans in mountain passes, they struggled in open areas where they were easily defeated.

Groups that used domesticated animals often had healthier and more protein-rich diets. This was because they ate the animals themselves and also grew better food. By the time Eurasian societies arrived in the Americas, they had benefited from generations of eating a protein-rich diet. Animals helped them with transportation, farming, warfare, and labor, which reduced the need for human effort.

Geographic Factors in the Conquest of the Americas

The reason Eurasian people conquered the Americas isn't about being better or more advanced, but rather a series of historical accidents. The conquest happened not because of racial or religious superiority but because of geography and how Eurasian societies developed. Historians say Europeans conquered the New World due to their guns, germs, and steel. Diamond begins his analysis from the basics to avoid the racist and biased views found in earlier historical interpretations. Ultimately, geography played a key role, in shaping the development of advanced societies and technologies.

Geography played a crucial role in determining where plants and animals could thrive. The New World, unlike Eurasia, did not have access to the same variety of plants and animals. This lack of resources meant that Native American civilizations like the Aztecs and Incas had different paths compared to Europeans. They didn't have access to several domesticated plants and animals found in Eurasia, not because they were less advanced, but because of where they lived. When they were eventually introduced to European plants, animals, and technology, they also faced Eurasian diseases and advanced weaponry.