Violence is a direct, risky method to achieve goals

Humans are driven to commit violence by their "inner demons," rooted in the desire to gain an evolutionary edge. Through natural selection, organisms compete for survival and reproductive success. When resources are scarce, individuals may resort to physical force to secure them, a strategy known as predation. This pragmatic approach helps organisms obtain what they need to thrive, showcasing violence as a means to achieve goals effectively.

Violent tendencies are common in humans, starting from early childhood. Toddlers, for instance, often display behaviors like "biting, kicking, and hitting," which are part of their development. As people grow older, these tendencies can persist. Surveys among university students found that "up to 90 percent of men and 80 percent of women" have admitted to fantasizing about killing someone within a year. Violence is risky because even if an organism wins a fight, it can still get hurt. These injuries might lower its chances of surviving and passing on its genes. That's why humans are careful about when they use violence.

Violence can enhance social status and resource access

Violence as a way to get what you want is risky because even if an organism wins, there's a high chance of getting hurt, which could reduce its chances of passing on genes. To avoid unnecessary fights and injuries, many social species establish dominance hierarchies. These hierarchies rank individuals based on who would likely win in a fight. The main benefit is that they prevent fights altogether. In these social setups, dominance typically favors males due to their larger size and strength.

The male's place in the hierarchy dictates his access to females, with top-ranking males having more opportunities to reproduce. This often drives males to use force not only to secure resources but also to climb higher on the social ladder. This behavior echoes in human societies today. Men typically pursue and compete for women, valuing status more than women do. However, in ancient hunter-gatherer tribes around 1 to 1.5 million years ago, women began prioritizing a male's loyalty and ability to provide for the family over dominance in reproduction.

Evolutionary Roles and Family Dynamics

In the past, men hunted while women cared for their families. This meant females preferred males who were loyal and provided food, ensuring the family's well-being over those who sought multiple mates. This behavior helped our ancestors thrive by promoting generosity and loyalty within families, crucial for our evolutionary success.

Evolutionary roots of revenge fuel global violence

Many of us have felt the urge for revenge, which seems to drive a lot of violence. It's not just about immediate payback, but also about holding grudges and seeking retaliation over time. This desire is nearly universal across cultures. Almost all cultures support the idea of an eye for an eye, and revenge is behind up to 20 percent of the world's murders. Even when people imagine killing someone, revenge often plays a role. For instance, in a recent survey of university students, most of their fantasies about murder involved seeking revenge.

Taking revenge feels good, similar to the pleasure from "cocaine or chocolate," as seen in studies with lab rats. Despite its lingering effect beyond conflicts or insults, revenge doesn't usually bring tangible benefits. Evolutionarily, it serves as a deterrent: if potential attackers fear retaliation, they might reconsider their actions due to long-term consequences. Our moral beliefs also influence our desire for revenge, as we feel both good and bad actions should be reciprocated.

Sadism is rare and acquired, a perplexing phenomenon

Sadism involves intentionally causing pain to others because the suffering gives pleasure. This behavior, fortunately uncommon today, often mixes with other reasons for violence, like revenge. In the past, sadistic behavior was more common. For instance, in ancient Rome and medieval times, prisoners were often tortured to death in public stadiums for entertainment. However, even then, sadism was less frequent compared to other reasons for violence. Sadism seems to develop over time-it's like an "acquired taste." Initially disturbing, it can become pleasurable and even addictive once someone becomes accustomed to it. This phenomenon can be seen in notorious figures like serial killers.

The role of sadism in human evolution isn't entirely clear, but we can speculate it developed as an instinct for extreme violence. In brutal conditions, this instinct might have helped survival, triggered by surrounding violence. Fortunately, such behavior is rare today, which is a relief.

Unintended harm from noble intentions: better world efforts lead to bloodshed

Ideology, viewed as a shared belief in achieving a perfect world through violence, mirrors predation in achieving desired outcomes. However, ideological violence surpasses individual motives by aiming to create a better future. Unfortunately, human traits often make us susceptible to violent ideologies. For instance:

• Humans naturally categorize people into "ingroups" (groups we belong to) and "outgroups" (groups we don't belong to). This often leads to hostility towards outgroups and favoritism towards our ingroups.
• When people with similar ideas gather in groups, their beliefs tend to become more extreme, which can lead to the formation of dangerous ideologies.
• Groupthink is another issue where group members avoid questioning the group's ideas to avoid conflict, allowing harmful ideologies to go unchallenged.
• Social pressure to conform to ideologies can lead to punishment of those who don't comply, sometimes through intimidation or violence.

Certain traits in people can lead to dangerous ideas. For instance, when someone suggests that getting rid of a demonized group could help achieve a perfect society, a few people agree and start spreading this belief. They punish anyone who disagrees, which intimidates larger groups into supporting the idea. Skeptics are silenced or isolated. Followers justify their actions despite knowing they might be wrong, and the suppression tactics become harsher over time. Many terrible acts, like the Holocaust and Stalin's purges, stem from such beliefs. These motives for violence reveal a dark side of human behavior.

Empathy evolved for family care, can extend to other groups

Empathy, our natural inclination to care for others, especially family and children, evolved to promote mutual support and cooperation. Initially, it ensured parents cared for their offspring, driven by "altruistic concern" and "facial symmetry" akin to human children. For instance, "baby seals" evoke more empathy than "rats," and "baby-faced convicts" receive lighter sentences. Later, empathy expanded to promote "reciprocal and altruistic relationships" beyond kin, promoting cooperation through "mutually beneficial favors," such as resource trading.

Human empathy isn't just triggered by cold resource exchanges; it thrives on lasting bonds similar to family ties. Research suggests we can expand our empathy beyond close circles by noticing similarities with others. This familial foundation of empathy means we often show compassion to those who share commonalities with us.

Empathy's Dual Nature

Understanding others can improve empathy, especially when we see the world through their eyes. However, empathy can also lead to unfair outcomes. For instance, in a study, subjects showed empathy towards Sheri, a sick ten-year-old girl. They were willing to let her jump ahead in line for medical treatment, even if it meant others with more urgent needs would wait longer.

Strengthen Self-control to Resist Violence

The idea of temptation and conscience, portrayed as an angel and demon on our shoulders, is familiar to many. It turns out, this comparison reflects real human behavior more accurately than we might think. Research indicates that our urges and our ability to control them originate from different parts of our brain. Our brain uses the prefrontal cortex for smart choices like rewards, but sometimes the older limbic system takes over. For instance, when an immediate reward shows up, the limbic system pushes us to grab it, no matter the consequences, even if it doesn't seem logical.

The prefrontal cortex helps us control impulses to make rational decisions. It's like our brain's self-control center. Studies show that when this control weakens, people are more likely to behave violently-brain scans of violent individuals reveal smaller prefrontal cortexes. Fortunately, research also suggests that practicing self-control can strengthen our willpower. For example, people who tracked their food intake or started exercising regularly showed improved self-control and resilience against willpower depletion.

Improve Self-Control to Reduce Violence

Historically, when governments banned violence, people had to learn to control their aggressive urges. This meant training and strengthening their willpower, leading to less violence. However, studies show that low blood sugar levels can weaken our willpower. This suggests that as global nutrition improves, violence may decrease as self-control improves.

Morality influences violence, leaning away from it

Morality influences how people behave in both positive and negative ways. Throughout history, groups like "homosexuals" and "heretics" have been targeted and killed in the name of what's considered right and wrong. At the same time, moral principles have also played a crucial role in reducing violence, such as in efforts for "racial equality." This dual impact of morality on human behavior can be best understood by examining four key themes or modes that shape our moral actions.

• Communal Sharing: In groups or communities, it's important to stay loyal and share resources and ideas. This promotes peace and cooperation but can lead to persecuting those who don't fit in, sometimes even to genocidal ideas.
• Authority Ranking: Authorities deserve loyalty from their people, and in return, they should protect them. This can benefit society, like when a queen ensures her subjects' safety. However, it can also support harmful hierarchies like slavery.
• Equality Matching: This involves humans reciprocating favors. It promotes peace by boosting global trade, which reduces conflicts that harm economies. Yet, it can also lead to violence when people seek revenge.

Market pricing involves everyday transactions, like buying from stores or using services such as dining out. It's generally seen as wrong not to pay for these services. This system, like when people share equally, aims to make everyone better off. However, it can also encourage businesses to seek profit without considering moral values, such as in cases like slavery. Our moral sense guides us away from such harmful practices more as people move around more and new ideas spread, reducing their negative impacts.

Reason drives us to seek peace and nonviolence, and our rationality is expanding

Reason isn't always seen as inherently good. It could be used, for example, to figure out how to use violence to get what you want. However, reason develops in creatures that value their own life and welfare due to natural selection. Therefore, they are more likely to use reason to seek peace, not violence.

This is accomplished through various approaches. Politicians like Kennedy and Khrushchev used "reason" to increase peace and decrease violence. During the Cuban Missile Crisis, they used "reason" to see their problem as a shared trap they both needed to escape without losing face. This united them in finding a solution together.

Reason effectively disproves harmful superstitions that provoke violence, such as the idea that "witches" use spells and deserve burning. Additionally, reason remains unbiased, allowing us to see things fairly instead of through personal and sometimes selfish viewpoints. It shifts our focus from ourselves to broader perspectives ("X's and Y's"), promoting the common good.

Rise in Intelligence Over Time

According to the Flynn Effect, discovered by philosopher James Flynn, "IQ scores increase by an average of three points per decade." This means that if a typical teenager today traveled back to 1910, she would be smarter than 98 percent of her peers from that time.

Abstract reasoning, crucial for understanding others' perspectives, has notably increased. This change is fueled by more schooling and a stronger focus on critical thinking. Importantly, improved reasoning correlates with lower levels of violence. Studies show that proficient reasoners tend to be less aggressive, more collaborative, and endorse peaceful political and economic ideologies. Let's examine six key historical trends that have bolstered our better instincts while curbing our darker impulses.

State Monopoly on Violence Began 5,000 Years Ago

Around 5,000 years ago, people shifted from wandering hunter-gatherer groups to settled agricultural communities with formal governments. This change led to less violence overall. Despite the idea that nomadic tribes were peaceful caretakers of the land, historical evidence shows they were quite violent. Anthropologists once played down this violence, influenced by past prejudices against these groups. They focused instead on portraying them as peaceful, even when evidence suggested otherwise.

In reality, ancient hunter-gatherers fought over hunting grounds and water sources. They also kidnapped women from nearby tribes and sought revenge to deter future attacks. About 15 percent of deaths in these societies were due to violence, compared to just one percent in societies with formal governments. As agriculture and governments emerged, violence decreased because these rulers controlled it.

Evolution of State Violence Reduction

In today's societies, only the state can use violence against others, and individuals are punished if they do. Originally, states didn't aim to protect citizens from harm. They were the biggest source of violence against their people and other states. Their concern was that conflicts wasted time and resources that could otherwise be used for production. This loss of productivity meant less revenue for the rulers. So, reducing violence became beneficial for both rulers and citizens. Over time, governments have focused more on reducing violence for the greater good. However, state violence against other states remains a significant global issue.

Transition to Wealth

From the fifteenth century onwards in Western Europe, a significant change began to take place known as the civilizing process. Initially, European states grew larger and more powerful during this period. In the Middle Ages, life was marked by violence, with small states ruled by knights. These knights constantly battled each other, often harming peasants to undermine their opponents' finances. Society itself was harsh; even entertainment was brutal. For instance, a popular game involved players trying to kill a cat nailed to a post with their heads, as their hands were tied behind their backs. This game risked injury from the frantic animal.

Weapons and military tactics improved, allowing knights to gain more power and unite various lands. From the fifteenth century to 1953, the number of these separate estates in Europe dropped dramatically from 5,000 to just 30. As these knights expanded their territories and became kings, they aimed to reduce conflicts among their people to save resources. This led them to punish violence more strictly. Meanwhile, trade networks grew larger and more profitable, further driving the process of civilization.

Development and Reduced Violence

• Advances in technology and infrastructure spurred the expansion of territories. Safer roads and improved trade encouraged "economic growth." Inventions like clocks, windmills, horseshoes, and a national currency boosted productivity and eased trading. This shift reduced violence in two key ways:
• Firstly, many chose trade over violence as a peaceful path to wealth.
• Secondly, trade promoted interdependence, meaning your trading partner was more valuable alive than dead.

The Humanitarian Revolution preached humane treatment for despised

In the 17th and 18th centuries, Europe saw a significant drop in violence, marking a new era influenced by a compassionate philosophy. This shift began treating previously persecuted individuals with humanity. This humanitarian revolution had far-reaching effects. For instance, it led to a decrease in killings linked to superstition and religion. In the 1600s, witch-burning, once widespread across Europe, was outlawed. Additionally, the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 brought an end to the Wars of Religion, allowing religious freedom and protecting people from persecution.

During the same era, slavery declined-a widespread practice throughout history that caused immense suffering to millions. Another significant change was in how criminals were treated. Previously, they faced brutal punishments like torture and mutilation, even for minor offenses like stealing vegetables or gossiping. However, from the seventeenth century onward, the torture of criminals stopped, and in the eighteenth century, the use of capital punishment also began to decrease.

The Impact of Humanism on Violence Reduction

These shifts in violence reduction were all connected. They stemmed from a philosophy emerging from the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries called humanism. Humanism values human life and happiness above all else, using reason and evidence to shape how societies handle their institutions.

The rise of humanism in the sixteenth century was greatly influenced by the invention of the printing press. This new technology spreads ideas quickly, allowing people to learn about others and gain new perspectives. It encouraged empathy and the growth of rational thinking among individuals.

500-year decline led to post-WWII peace
Since the end of World War II, the world has seen a significant drop in violent conflicts. From 1945 to 1955, about 17 out of every 100,000 people worldwide died due to war. Today, this number has fallen sharply to just one in 100,000 people over the past decade. This period marks a historical shift towards less violence on a global scale.

Major world powers have fought each other less over time. In the 16th and 17th centuries, they were at war around 85% of the time. By 1850-1950, this dropped to about 15%, and after that, they didn't fight each other at all. Since the mid-1980s, these powers have enjoyed their longest period of peace with each other since the Roman Empire. Factors behind the decline of Mass Warfare are:

• The "civilizing process" led to fewer small states competing for power and reduced conflict. It also made trade more profitable, discouraging wars.
• "Separation of church and state" decreased religious justifications for wars over time.
• Enlightenment thinkers promoted reason and human well-being, arguing that governments should prioritize citizens' welfare over glorifying rulers through war.

These factors collectively decreased the inclination towards large-scale warfare and the violence it causes.

Post-Cold War Era: Less Conflict, Genocide, Terrorism

Since 1991, there has been a significant decline in violence worldwide. This period witnessed a reduction in both large-scale conflicts and smaller proxy wars that marked the Cold War era. During the Cold War, major powers like the United States and the Soviet Union supported opposing factions in smaller countries, but as the Cold War ended, so did the motivations behind these conflicts. Civil wars are decreasing because more countries are adopting democratic changes, reducing the need for such conflicts. The international community supports this shift by providing money in exchange for democratic improvements and deploying peacekeeping troops to uphold ceasefires in war zones.

Violence is also dropping because atrocities like genocides are becoming less common, although sadly, they still occur occasionally, as seen in Rwanda and Yugoslavia. One reason for this decline is that the ideologies behind past massacres, like the brutal Marxism that led to Pol Pot's horrors, have been restrained. Another factor is that democratic governments tend to avoid such brutality. As democracy spreads globally, there are fewer mass killings.

Decline in Terrorism

Contrary to popular belief fueled by events like 9/11, terrorism has decreased over time. In the 1960s and 1970s, groups like the Black Liberation Army and the Jewish Defense League were more active. The peak of terrorism-related deaths was in the early 1980s, with about 0.2 deaths per 100,000 people. Since then, this number has dropped by half, reaching its lowest in 2009. This decline was influenced by the end of the Cold War and reduced support from Cold War nations. Encouragingly, support for terrorism in the Muslim world has also been declining since 2007.

1960s Rights Movements reduced violence for marginalized groups

The Rights Revolutions since the 1950s and 1960s civil rights movements have significantly reduced violence against minorities and marginalized groups. This era built upon the Humanitarian Revolution, where individuals' worth became central, regardless of race or other physical traits. For example, civil rights movements decreased racial discrimination and racist beliefs, leading to less violence. In the early 1960s, nearly half of people said they would move if their neighbors were black, but by the 1980s, only a small percentage still felt this way. Consequently, racially motivated murders and assaults have decreased and continue to decline.

The women's rights movement has significantly improved gender equality. Previously, women were seen as their husband's property, which meant acts like marital rape and domestic abuse were not considered crimes. Fortunately, over the last 25 years, there has been a marked decrease in violence against women. Similarly, efforts to uphold children's rights have reduced violence. At the start of the 20th century, physical punishment of children, such as placing them on red-hot stoves or tying them to bedposts, was widespread, especially in places like Germany. However, in recent decades, incidents of physical abuse against children have nearly halved worldwide.

Progress in Rights and Changing Attitudes

Furthermore, mistreatment and violence against gay individuals, once widespread and even supported by governments, are decreasing in the West. The movement for gay rights has sparked a significant shift in Western beliefs, leading to the legalization of homosexuality in nearly 120 countries. Unfortunately, in other parts of the world, violence against gay people remains a serious issue. Moreover, this rights movement has also affected animals, reducing their abuse in areas like scientific testing due to the rights they now have.